Volume 3 (No 1-2)

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    Global Campus Human Rights Journal, Volume 3 No 2
    (Global Campus of Human Rights, 2019) [...]
    This is the fifth issue of the Global Campus Human Rights Journal. It consists of two parts. The first part provides a special focus on ‘technology and human rights’, an area of growing interest and concern. In seven articles devoted to this topic, authors from across the globe investigate this issue. These seven articles are based on papers that were presented at an event of the Global Campus of Human Rights at which students, lecturers and other scholars interrogated the topic ‘The impact of new technologies on human rights’. The Global Campus of Human Rights consists of the Global Campus Europe, South East Europe, Africa, Asia Pacific, Caucasus, Latin America and the Arab World, with the participation of post-graduate students from their respective Master’s programmes in Human Rights and Democracy. The second part of this issue of the Journal contains a discussion of ‘recent developments’ in the fields of human rights and democratisation in five of the regions covered by the Global Campus of Human Rights. In this issue, developments during 2018 in five regions are covered: Europe, the Asia Pacific, the countries making up the Eastern Partnership, sub-Saharan Africa and South East Europe.
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    The political participation of the diaspora of the Middle East and North Africa before and after the Arab uprisings
    (Global Campus, 2019) al-Khulidi, Ali ; D'Hondt, Cedric ; Di Lenna, Maria Teresia ; Sarsar, Chafic ; Taha, Suhail
    The role of the Arab diasporas in the political processes of their home countries has changed significantly since the 2011 uprisings. The article aims to analyse these changes and assess the impact that diasporas have had on the democratisation processes of the post-2011 transitions. It does so by looking at examples of both direct and indirect diasporas’ participation in the politics of their home countries during and after the uprisings through mechanisms such as lobbying, campaigning, national dialogue initiatives, and voting in the parliamentary elections. The background to the social, economic and political contributions of the Arab diasporas before 2011 highlights the multiple identities of the diaspora communities abroad as well as the changes to their inclusion from disputed members of the regimes’ opposition to a more active civil society. With the shifting social and political environment of the last decade, the examples demonstrate the important political role that diasporas could play in cooperation and bridge building, both locally and internationally. However, they also demonstrate the obstacles and severe limitations they face in their inclusion in the governments’ transition to democratic governance. Transnational repression and a negative reception context are limiting factors affecting the ability of diasporas to fully participate as active citizens in both their host and home countries. As an important index for democratisation in the region, the conclusions drawn in the article could offer new perspectives on shaping and constructing regional politics and local regimes. These constitute pressing issues for the future and the evolution of democracy in the region, especially within the post-war reconstruction of countries such as Syria, Libya and Yemen, and the democratic transitions in Tunisia and Egypt.
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    Diaspora and democratisation: diversity of impact in Eastern Partnership countries
    (Global Campus, 2019) Aleksanyan, Arusyak ; Bejanyan, Varduhi ; Dodon, Carolina ; Maksimenko, Katsiaryna ; Simonian, Agabeg
    Around the world diasporas are important role players, and they make a significant contribution towards democracy-building processes in their homelands. The advantages of cooperation with diasporas in the sphere of democratisation are substantial. Diasporas display behavioural diversity and invest both financial and non-financial resources and values to enhance democratic governance and policy-making processes, to ensure social welfare and economic growth, to protect human rights and to establish civil society and the rule of law in their homelands. This article explores the influence of diasporas on democratisation in Eastern Partnership (EaP) countries from a comparative perspective. Diasporas originating from the six EaP countries (Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Georgia, Moldova and Ukraine) differ in scope, factors of influence on the democracy-building processes, and impact opportunities on government policies in both their homelands and countries of residence. At the same time, there are many similarities between these countries. Until 1991 these countries had limited ties with diasporas as they were Republics of the Soviet Union. All these countries experienced territorial conflicts, except for Belarus. Having different levels of democracy, they are involved in the EaP initiative aimed at sharing democratic values. From this point of view, it is of great interest to explore the diversity of the diasporas’ impact on the democracy-building processes in the mentioned countries. The article provides an understanding and comparative analysis of the variety in diasporas’ engagement in democratisation of homelands in EaP countries. Based on the findings, the authors argue that the diasporas of these countries have different impact levels on democracy. Moreover, they conclude that the democracy level in turn influences the countries’ diaspora policies.
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    Africa’s democratic deficit: the role of the diaspora in bridging the gap between citizens and government
    (Global Campus, 2019) Akech, Joseph Geng ; Assim, Usang Maria ; Mutambasere, Susan Chenai ; Ramakhula, Thabang ; Tutlam, Chaan Koang
    Africa’s diaspora continues to play an indispensable role in shaping the continent’s social and political landscape. This impact has been felt since the struggle against colonialism to the contemporary challenges of democratisation. Recent developments in technology and the impact of globalisation have further amplified the power of the diasporas to influence events in their home countries. The trend in response by African governments has ranged from exclusion and isolation to cooperation and collaboration. Many African governments have been open to engagement with diasporas to facilitate financial investments, but have been more circumspect in allowing political participation by the diasporas. Can the diasporas play a positive role in facilitating and aiding Africa’s new impetus towards democratisation or will diasporas further fragment some of their already fragile home countries? This article discusses democracy in sub- Saharan Africa against the backdrop of the peoples’ lived realities, and explores the role of the diasporas in addressing challenges peculiar to the African context. It is argued that diasporas play a significant role in forging the development of democracy in their homelands. The article engages four claims to interrogate this position. First, it contextualises democracy as a reality in Africa. Second, it closely considers the participation by the diasporas. The third aspect involves an evaluation of Africa’s legal and political frameworks, followed by the proposal for a collaborative approach towards the diasporas, to improve democratisation in Africa. As such, the research question that the article seeks to answer is whether the diasporas play a role in forging the development of democracy in Africa. With the aid of a desktop approach that draws on experiences from selected countries, the article maps the way forward in fostering a better Africa’s diaspora continues to play an indispensable role in shaping the continent’s social and political landscape. This impact has been felt since the struggle against colonialism to the contemporary challenges of democratisation. Recent developments in technology and the impact of globalisation have further amplified the power of the diasporas to influence events in their home countries. The trend in response by African governments has ranged from exclusion and isolation to cooperation and collaboration. Many African governments have been open to engagement with diasporas to facilitate financial investments, but have been more circumspect in allowing political participation by the diasporas. Can the diasporas play a positive role in facilitating and aiding Africa’s new impetus towards democratisation or will diasporas further fragment some of their already fragile home countries? This article discusses democracy in sub- Saharan Africa against the backdrop of the peoples’ lived realities, and explores the role of the diasporas in addressing challenges peculiar to the African context. It is argued that diasporas play a significant role in forging the development of democracy in their homelands. The article engages four claims to interrogate this position. First, it contextualises democracy as a reality in Africa. Second, it closely considers the participation by the diasporas. The third aspect involves an evaluation of Africa’s legal and political frameworks, followed by the proposal for a collaborative approach towards the diasporas, to improve democratisation in Africa. As such, the research question that the article seeks to answer is whether the diasporas play a role in forging the development of democracy in Africa. With the aid of a desktop approach that draws on experiences from selected countries, the article maps the way forward in fostering a better Africa’s diaspora continues to play an indispensable role in shaping the continent’s social and political landscape. This impact has been felt since the struggle against colonialism to the contemporary challenges of democratisation. Recent developments in technology and the impact of globalisation have further amplified the power of the diasporas to influence events in their home countries. The trend in response by African governments has ranged from exclusion and isolation to cooperation and collaboration. Many African governments have been open to engagement with diasporas to facilitate financial investments, but have been more circumspect in allowing political participation by the diasporas. Can the diasporas play a positive role in facilitating and aiding Africa’s new impetus towards democratisation or will diasporas further fragment some of their already fragile home countries? This article discusses democracy in sub- Saharan Africa against the backdrop of the peoples’ lived realities, and explores the role of the diasporas in addressing challenges peculiar to the African context. It is argued that diasporas play a significant role in forging the development of democracy in their homelands. The article engages four claims to interrogate this position. First, it contextualises democracy as a reality in Africa. Second, it closely considers the participation by the diasporas. The third aspect involves an evaluation of Africa’s legal and political frameworks, followed by the proposal for a collaborative approach towards the diasporas, to improve democratisation in Africa. As such, the research question that the article seeks to answer is whether the diasporas play a role in forging the development of democracy in Africa. With the aid of a desktop approach that draws on experiences from selected countries, the article maps the way forward in fostering a better relationship between the diasporas and African governments to improve democratic governance, advocating a collaborative approach that is also cognisant of the important role of civil society in reaching the grassroots. The key findings indicate that while governments are open to engagement with the diasporas in the areas of development and investment, this is not the same in the case of political participation. This is based on the disregard of the minority view as used in the Western model of elective democracy. It is hoped that if consensus is used where the majority considers the positions of the minority, the issue of political participation would be greatly harnessed beyond the current trend.
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    The European Union diaspora dilemma: to dodge or to dive in
    (Global Campus, 2019) Amorim, Sara ; Todorova, Elitsa ; Vedano, Alessia ; Wetschko, Bernhard
    The European Union member states have long been confronted with the phenomenon of diaspora resulting from both emigration and immigration. For centuries European communities have settled outside of the EU, almost creating ‘little homelands’ in various corners of the world. The same has occurred and still occurs with diasporas originating from third countries and residing in EU territory. A further feature makes the EU context unique when it comes to diasporas, namely, the opportunity for EU citizens to freely move across the borders of member states due to free mobility policies. The possibilities presented by free mobility have led to the formation of many diaspora communities in EU member states coming from other EU member states. However, over the past years much more attention has been devoted to large ‘immigrating’ diasporas, given the increased influx of migrants from third countries. This article analyses the approaches of member states and the EU as an organisation towards diasporas and diaspora engagement, including the question of whether any clear policy frameworks to mobilise diaspora actors exist. The first part provides a brief mapping of the ‘EU diasporas’, while the second part focuses on the various diaspora policy strategies adopted by member states when dealing with their own diasporas and those within their territories. By then studying the cases of France and Bulgaria, the article answers the first research question: What is the relationship between EU member states and diasporas within their policy frameworks? The last part examines the diaspora issue at the institutional level of the EU, answering the second research question: What is the relationship between the EU and diaspora within its policy framework? This question is of particular interest since the diaspora topic has garnered increased attention in the context of several EU high priority issues and because the EU regularly provides guidance for its member states through policy making.
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    The ambivalent role of diaspora engagement for the homeland in the Balkans
    (Global Campus, 2019) Alibašic, Mubina ; Davidović, Emilija ; Kapetanović, Sabiha ; Remiddi, Adriano ; Zejnilović, Edima
    Diasporas have become significant role players in the democratic lives of their countries of origin. Such dynamic is particularly evident in the South East European context, a region characterised in contemporary history by massive movement, displacement and outflow of populations. This article aims at exploring the dichotomies that the diasporas’ political, economic and cultural involvement in the homeland present, including the discourse over its positive and negative features, hence tackling the issue of its potential to give rise to controversy. In fact, in addition to exerting a pro-active role for the democratic and socio-economic development of their home countries, diaspora communities may also embrace antagonistic approaches, countering certain transformation processes, state-building agendas or favouring one elite rule over another. Through a set of cases from the South East European context, the research addresses the regional, therefore global, question of how diaspora groups transnationally participate in the life of their home states, what their objectives are and how they may hinder democratisation processes, acting as incubators or accelerators of – potentially violent – change.
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    Editorial: the influence of diasporas on democracy-building processes: behavioural diversity
    (Global Campus, 2019) Aleksanyan, Arusyak
    Diaspora and democracy: These two phenomena have always aroused the interest of scholars. Indeed, in academic literature various significant research contributions and discussions are focused separately on either diaspora issues or on democracy. This special focus is an attempt to combine these two categories by exploring democratisation through the prism of diasporas’ activities and the other way round – to reveal the influence of democratic changes on diaspora issues. Something that has been less explored in literature is the role of the diaspora in democracybuilding processes. In this context, articles presented in this issue of the Global Campus Human Rights Journal are unique and in various ways fill this gap in the academic literature. The aim of the research in this special thematic focus is to explore the role and influences that diasporas can have on democracy-building processes by identifying diverse behavioural approaches applied in various regions.
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    The influence of diaspora on democracy-building processes
    (Global Campus, 2019) Nowak, Manfred
    Introduction to special focus: The influence of diaspora on democracy-building processes.
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    Editorial
    (Global Campus, 2019) Viljoen, Frans ; Hayes, Mike ; Aleksanyan, Arusyak
    This is the fourth issue of the Global Campus Human Rights Journal. It consists of two parts. The first part provides a special focus on the phenomenon of ‘the diaspora’, and investigates its role and influence in various parts of the globe. The second part of this issue of the Journal contains a book review, drawing attention to the life and inestimable role of Raoul Wallenberg in saving lives during World War II.
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    Are smart walls smart solutions? The impact of technologically-charged borders on human rights in Europe
    (Global Campus of Human Rights, 2019) Kieran, Bronagh ; Amorós Cascales, Fuensanta ; Thomi, Laura ; Veit, Meredith
    This article reviews new technologies on the external border of the European Union, and the human rights ramifications of these developments. It utilises a multi-disciplinary approach, writing on the emerging technologies themselves, their impact on vulnerable groups, legal developments relating to privacy, and the political context informing migration policy. The first part outlines emerging trends in border technology. The discussion relies on examples beyond the European Union to inform its analysis, including case studies from the United States border with Mexico. Technological developments considered include thermal imaging; biometric data; virtual reality; artificial intelligence; and drones. The second part explores how vulnerable groups will be affected by the collection of biometrics at the external border of the European Union. This part explores how algorithms, far from being objective arbiters, in fact are repositories for the bias of the manufacturer. The article postulates that to tackle the proliferation of bias, it is necessary to have a diverse workforce creating these systems. Third, the article addresses the regulatory framework on data privacy in the European Union. The significance of a right to privacy post-9/11 context is described. The conception of data privacy of the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) is set out. This part first analyses how GDPR has affected the processing and storage of data in the EU and, second, draws out the implications for the data of migrants. Special emphasis is placed on the concept of consent, and the ability of migrants to refuse the collection of their data is put into question. Finally, the article turns to the political context. Arguing that right-wing populism is not inherently opposed to new technologies, the article points to populists’ reliance on social media to garner support. Furthermore, it is advanced that the potential for migrants’ human rights to be impinged by new technologies is compounded by the influence of right-wing populism on migration policy. Key words: smart borders; surveillance; consent; privacy; biometrics; human rights; vulnerable groups; securitisation; technology; artificial intelligence
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    The right to development and internet shutdowns: Assessing the role of information and communications technology in democratic development in Africa
    (Global Campus of Human Rights, 2019) Nyokabi, Deborah Mburu ; Diallo, Naa ; Ntesang, Nozizwe W. ; White, Thomas Kagiso ; Ilori, Tomiwa
    The right to development is generally assessed as an all-inclusive right. It is regarded as a rallying right in which all other rights are mostly realised. The progressive nature of the right to development in realising other rights as a benchmark to a society’s development has become popular even beyond legal jurisprudence to include other qualitative fields of knowledge. The role played by information and communications technology in the realisation of this right has also been acknowledged, particularly in the digital age. However, this progress has not been even across regions in the world. While some regions have experienced a fast-paced development due to ICT, several countries in Africa have been held back due to unfavourable state and non-state policies that have had negative impacts on human rights and democratic development on the continent. This article assesses the impact of ICT on the right to development, particularly as a rallying right, and the way in which the internet, a major component of ICT, has affected the right. The article especially considers the effects of network disruptions on human rights and democratic development that have become rife in the region. This study finds that there have been several human rights violations through ICT by many state and non-state actors in Africa. Most importantly, the article finds that these violations impede the right to development and pose threats to democratic development in the region. A conclusion is based on these findings and proffers feasible solutions to resolve the challenges posed by these violations. Key words: right to development; Africa; information and communication technology; digital age; internet shutdowns; democratic development
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    Big Brother in the Middle-East and North Africa: The expansion of imported surveillance technologies and their supportive legislation
    (Global Campus of Human Rights, 2019) El-Ashy, Ola ; Maroni, Ilaria ; Mizyed, Hazem ; Nammar, Razan ; Al-Maskati, Mohammed
    The article analyses digital surveillance companies and the possibilities that technology makes available to oppressive regimes: from monitoring centres facilitating mass surveillance on all telecommunications, to firewalls that filter what users can access, and spyware that tap into the information stored in any personal device connected to the internet. This grim picture of new technologies becomes significantly darker when taking into account the volume of this ‘international repression trade’ and the market value of surveillance companies operating in states self-identified as democracies. Key words: digital rights; surveillance; cyber-crime legislation; right to privacy; freedom of expression; national security; cyberwar; information technology; human rights defenders
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    Online assemblies between freedom and order: Practices in South-East Europe
    (Global Campus of Human Rights, 2019) Jovanović, Andrea ; Kanlić, Edo ; Savić, David ; Stanić, Goran ; Ćendić, Kristina
    This article approaches the question of whose interests the internet serves through the prism of online assemblies in the South-East Europe (SEE) region. In order to answer this question, the article uses four connected yet different angles. The first part explores opportunities and limitations of international laws, as well as national laws in the SEE region. Furthermore, the article discusses the role of the state in providing and facilitating access to the internet, that is, enabling the space for online assemblies in the SEE region. The article takes into account the variety of actors in the field of freedom of expression and freedom of assembly online, paying special attention to internet service providers. Finally, the article analyses the surveillance of the internet activities and security and its relation with online and offline assemblies. The article uses all four these aspects to explore the situations in the SEE region. The article specifically focuses on four countries, namely, three former Yugoslav republics: Croatia – a European Union member since 2013; Serbia – a candidate country exercising control over the internet the most; Bosnia and Herzegovina – a country aspiring to become a candidate but in which progress is burdened by divisions and legacy of the war; and Turkey, which has one of the most illustrative examples of stifling freedom of expression and assembly, and the influence of which on the Balkans is also visible. Key words: online assemblies; South-East Europe; freedom of assembly; freedom of expression
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    Global Campus Human Rights Journal, Volume 3 No 1
    (Global Campus, 2019) [...]
    Global Campus Human Rights Journal (Human Rights Journal) is a peer-reviewed scholarly journal, published under the auspices of the Global Campus of Human Rights as an open-access on-line journal.
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    The Armenian community in Iran: issues and emigration
    (Global Campus, 2019) Iskandaryan, Gohar
    The Armenian-Iranian community has a history of around 400 years. According to official statistics, there were approximately 300 000 Armenians in Iran in 1960-1970. After the Islamic revolution in Iran in 1978-1979, a considerable number of Armenians fled from Iran. In addition, other reasons fuelling the emigration were the 1980-1988 Iran-Iraq war, the international sanctions against Iran and the harsh social-economic conditions in the country. Many Armenians remaining in Iran mostly live in the three communities of Tabriz, Tehran and Isfahan. Armenians are recognised by the state as a religious minority. The Constitution of Iran gives rights of domestic, cultural and religious autonomy to Armenians. At the same time, Islamic laws dictate certain limitations, notably in the spheres of equal employment opportunities, the court system and justice. Armenians in Iran adopt several approaches for retaining their Armenian identities, including the non-acceptance of mixed marriages. After the Islamic revolution, the Hebrew Immigrant Aid Society started to organise and support the emigration of Jews and other non-Muslim groups, thus propelling the next wave of the Iranian-Armenians’ exodus.
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    The influence of the African diaspora on democracy-building processes in countries of residence
    (Global Campus, 2019) Gumedze, Sabelo
    This article discusses the role of the African diaspora in democracybuilding processes in the African diaspora. The contribution presents a general overview of the sources and causes of the present-day situation of people of African descent in the diaspora and how they impact on their participation in democracy-building processes in the diaspora. The article underscores the critical role which the African diaspora plays and notes the challenges it faces due to the continuing social ills of racism, racial discrimination, Afrophobia, xenophobia and related intolerance. These social ills prevent the African diaspora from effectively exercising their rights to take part in the conduct of public affairs; to vote and to be elected in genuine periodic elections, and to have access, on general term of equality, to public services in their country. A quick scan of what obtains in the African diaspora shows that political participation remains a challenge for people of African descent and there is a need for a concerted effort to address this challenge both at the international and state levels. The contribution also underscores the need for the implementation of the International Decade for People of African Descent as a tool for changing for the better the situation of the African diaspora, particularly in their participation in democracy-building processes. Owing to the historical facts and contemporary migration, the African diaspora is not homogeneous. This presupposes the need to contextualise any strategy aimed at addressing the challenges faced by the African diaspora in democracy building.
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    Ingrid Carlberg. Raoul Wallenberg: The Man Who Saved Thousands of Hungarian Jews from the Holocaust
    (Global Campus, 2019) Mutton, Jan
    J Mutton Book Review ‘Ingrid Carlberg Raoul Wallenberg: The Man Who Saved Thousands of Hungarian Jews from the Holocaust (with an introduction by Kofi Annan) (original in Swedish)’. Norstedts 2012; Editions Limited, translated hardcover edition (2016); MacLehose Press, translated paperback edition (2017) 640 pages
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    Selected developments in human rights and democracy in 2018: Migration and asylum in Europe
    (Global Campus of Human Rights, 2019) Durante Viola, Lorenzo ; Pugnale, Cristina ; Russo, Federica ; Siwczyk, Tamara ; Torres Lopez, Paloma
    2018 marks a milestone year with respect to the socio-legal and political aspects surrounding the issue of migration due to the adoption of the two Global Compacts (the Global Compact on Refugees and the Global Compact on Safe, Orderly and Regular Migration). In the first part this article gives an insight into the content of the Global Compact on Migration (GCM), which led to a loss of unity of European Union representation. The article further analyses two highly controversial topics from the Global Compact, namely, the so-called ‘climate migrants’ and ‘migrants in vulnerable situations’. Notwithstanding its soft law nature, the examination of the GCM reveals that both groups received recognition at a global level for the first time. Furthermore, the article analyses how these divergent positions on migration are being reflected in the EU’s policy making. The article finds that, instead of lifting the unequal migratory burden from some member states through harmonisation, EU policies have had the main aim to prevent migrants from entering into EU jurisdiction. Crucial developments in this context are the criminalisation of search and rescue NGOs, the transfer of search and rescue responsibilities to third countries and the outsourcing of migration-related responsibilities. Overall, the lack of progress in reforming the common European asylum system resulted in the externalisation of the EU migration policies through bilateral and multilateral agreements with transit countries. Finally, although the issue of migration requires political responses, the protection of refugees and migrants has increasingly relied upon judicial institutions. Key words: Global Compact on Migration; climate migrants; migrants in vulnerable situations; search and rescue; externalisation policies; common European asylum system
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    Sustaining human rights in the era of new technologies: Case studies of Armenia, Belarus and the Kyrgyz Republic
    (Global Campus of Human Rights, 2019) Abdubachaeva, Aisuluu ; Vavrik, Kristina ; Ayvazyan, Karen ; Mkrtchyan, Mariam ; Nosik, Yuriy
    The development of new technologies and innovation is meant to enhance accessibility and make life easier. Due to the fast pace of development, the response of countries to new technologies is crucial to ensure their reasonable use. However, along with the development of new technologies different implications have emerged as some developing countries appear not to be capable of effectively responding to these developments. Despite the positive impact of new technologies on various aspects of life, their misuse has negative implications for the enjoyment of human rights. This article aims to explore regional challenges to human rights caused by new technologies at the national and regional levels. It also aims to identify long-term structural challenges to human rights in Armenia, Belarus and the Kyrgyz Republic with a focus on cyber security, freedom of expression, freedom of speech, access to information and data protection policies. It further aims to make recommendations to stakeholders so as to improve the situation and minimise the negative impact of new technologies on human rights. On the one hand, the study reveals that the development of new technologies increased the accessibility of people to information in terms of e-governance programmes. Moreover, it shows that political mobilisation and participation, and freedom of expression have been enhanced due to social media developments. On the other hand, it identifies the current challenges to human rights in Armenia, Belarus, and the Kyrgyz Republic in terms of increasing hate speech online, media manipulation, the spreading of disinformation, data leakage and cyber security. The study shows that despite the positive impact of the new technologies on the enjoyment of human rights, the inability of these states to effectively respond to the developments and eliminate the misuse of new technologies, and the insufficiency of strategies, legislation and policies, are negatively impacting on human rights. Key words: human rights; digitalisation; cyber security; new technologies; e-governance; freedom of speech; free flow of information; digital rights
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    The impact of new information and communication technologies on the enjoyment of human rights in Latin America
    (Global Campus of Human Rights, 2019) Arriola, Andrea ; Rivadeneira, Felipe ; Guzman, Carlos ; García, Mailen ; Nash, Claudio
    New information and communication technologies pose different and diverse challenges to the enjoyment of human rights in Latin America. This article presents a number of case studies on challenges and opportunities connected with ICTs and their impact on social movements, litigation, politics and the enjoyment of individual rights. It also refers to the attempts to promote the legal regulation of the digital sphere. The analysis highlights the gap between citizens with access to technology and connectivity and those left behind. Key words: information and communication technologies (ICT); Latin America; legal regulation; digital rights; technology; connectivity; social inequality