Exploring the effect of internal and regional instability in the Middle East on the enforcement of modern slavery legislation in Lebanon. The Lebanese Kafala System

Abstract

This thesis explores the effect of internal and regional instability on the enforcement of modern slavery legislation concerning the Lebanese kafala system. It incorporates a gender perspective, as the kafala system predominantly affects migrant women employed in a highly feminised domestic labour sector. The study examines Lebanon’s political organisation and recent challenges, which made the country particularly vulnerable to the crises. It identifies the 2019 economic crisis, the 2020 COVID-19 pandemic, the Beirut explosion and the 2023–2024 Israel–Hezbollah war as the relevant factors of internal and regional instability. The thesis further demonstrates that the legislation governing the kafala system was itself inadequate, although it did provide certain rights for migrant domestic workers that required effective enforcement. Furthermore, the research provides a comprehensive overview of the deterioration of migrant domestic workers’ socio-economic conditions in Lebanon following the crises. The findings demonstrate that legislation governing the kafala system was already inadequately enforced prior to the crises. Following the crises, enforcement outcomes, assessed through administrative practices, labour inspections and access to justice, varied: some aspects remained equally ineffective, some deteriorated, while others showed limited improvements. The answer to the research question is therefore not straightforward but requires a nuanced assessment. Regarding gender, the findings demonstrate that legislation, the practices inherent to the kafala system itself, the socio-economic consequences of the crises and several aspects of enforcement negatively affected female migrant domestic workers.