The forgotten victims: how the hierarchy of victimhood shapes the misrecognition of trafficked Vietnamese boys in the United Kingdom

Abstract

Human trafficking is frequently understood through the image of the vulnerable sexually exploited woman or girl. This representation has come to dominate anti-trafficking policy and victim identification practices. As a result, victims whose experiences fall outside this narrative often struggle to access recognition and protection. This thesis explores how socially constructed notions of the ‘ideal victim’ shape the identification and protection of trafficked Vietnamese boys in the United Kingdom, particularly those exploited in cannabis cultivation. Drawing upon a literature, legal analysis, expert interviews, and Nils Christie’s theory of the ideal victim, the thesis examines the extent to which perceptions of victimhood influence victim’s access to protection in practice. The study analyses the international and domestic legal framework governing trafficking, including the Palermo Protocol, the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, the European Convention on Human Rights, the Modern Slavery Act 2015, and the National Referral Mechanism. It further examines case law and practitioner perspectives concerning the identification and treatment of trafficked boys involved in criminal exploitation. The findings demonstrate that, while the United Kingdom possesses a comprehensive legal framework intended to protect trafficking victims, its effectiveness is constrained by gendered and moral assumptions that privilege certain forms of victimhood over others. Consequently, trafficked Vietnamese boys risk misidentification and exclusion from protection. The thesis argues that addressing these biases through improved training, victim identification practices, and greater recognition of trafficking beyond sexual exploitation is essential to ensuring that anti-trafficking protections function effectively in practice, not just in theory.